"Klein and Olson (1960) reported on wolf-inhabited and wolf-free islands and the status of deer populations on those islands. Where wolves were absent, deer populations were stable or slowly increasing in excess of the winter range capacity; they suffered heavy winter mortality, and winter ranges deteriorated severely. Where wolves occurred, typical characteristics of deer herds were rapidly increasing populations, light winter mortality from starvation, and winter ranges in fair to good condition. They concluded that wolf predation was not the limiting factor." (p32)

"The density of lions has remained the same, but as shown, that of the prey species has increased... [They ratio of lion to deer during the study] further suggest that lion predation is not controlling ultimate numbers of these prey animals." (p30)

"Cowan (1947)... compared wolf-inhabited and wolf-free ranges and found that survival of both [elk] calves and [deer] fawns was virtually identical [between the two areas]." (p31)

"Cowan (1950) stated that malnutrition was most important in survival of juvenile elk and deer on overstocked ranges in Canadian parks." (p32)

"Lack (1954) concluded there is no correlation between reproductive success and subsequent breeding densities and that numbers are controlled principally by variation in the death rate of juveniles between fall and spring. The point made here is that population levels seek a 'norm' compatible with the multitude of factors making up the environment, including all of the depressing mechanisms operation [whether starvation from malnutrition, predation, or other]. (p32)

"To regulate [prey population], however, predation rate must equal the effective birthrate (Holling 1959). Clearly this rate of predation was not achieved by lions on elk and deer populations in this study."(p35)

"While predation by mountain lions appears ineffective in limiting ungulate populations, the damping of oscillations of these populations can be important... The damping and protraction of fluctuations in ungulate populations can only have a beneficial effect on the environment."(p35)

"Mountain lions keep deer and elk moving on the winter range. This alone is perhaps more important in an ecological sense that the actual removal of animals. The mere presence of a lion or family of lions in a locality or watershed does not appear to alarm game animals. When a kill is made, however, the reaction striking. Deer and elk immediately leave the area, cross to the far side, and in some instances leave to enter a different drainage. This behavior, observed without exception, acts to distribute game animals."(p35)

"The removal of animals by a population of lions acts to lower the rate of prey increase before more drastic forces such as disease or starvation, become dominant. Thus lion predation dampens and protracts severe prey oscillations."(p36)

"In this study, where prey populations were overabundant, lions killed a greater proportion of very young and very old animals and many were in poor condition. This pattern of predation appears universal where prey population exceed the carrying capacity regardless of the type of predator operating."(p36)

"It also appears that predator populations preying on overabundant prey populations are self-limited."(p36)
[mt. lions exclude other lions from their territory and only a limited number of territories fit in an area]

"From the theoretical standpoint, predation also appears to be a strong evolutionary force, acting to remove less fit individuals from the population."(p37)

"From the standpoint of determining ultimate numbers of elk and deer... it may be concluded that lion predation was inconsequential." (p36)

"It was concluded that elk and deer populations were limited by the winter food supply, and that predation by lions was inconsequential in determining ultimate numbers of elk and deer."(p37)

"The effects and influence of such predation are considered of great significance in the maintenance of ecologic stability in a wilderness environment."(p37)