“...vulnerability to predation appear to be correlated with spatial proximity of calves to wolf home ranges and rendezous sites. These results sugest that in our study area, the overall impact of wolves was not significant on either calf survival or behavior.” (Abstract)

“...calves born later in the season (i.e., younger) were more susceptible to wolf predation. The rate ratio for the age parameter indicated that for each day older, a calf’s risk of wolf predation declined by a factor of 5%. Thus, calves 1 month younger than others in their cohort were over 4 times more likely to die from wolf predation.” (302)

“...wolf predation had little influence on cattle movement or behavior.” (303)

“Wolf-caused calf mortality detection rates without mortalities found by study personnel were 1 of 8.0 wolf kills...” (303)

“Thus, maternal age and experience level, as well as birthdate af calves, should be evaluated more fully as potentially predisposing livestock to wolf predation.” (303)

“Cattle... likely constitute a secondary prey item, which are killed opportunistically by wolves. On several occasions, we observed wolves and cattle in close proximity (<500 m) without witnessing either predatory attempts or clear avoidance behavior. Accordingly, we suspect that predatory interactions occured infrequently despite the spatial proximity of wolves to calves.” (304)

“...future efforts should address in greater detail the potential sublethal effects of wolves on livestock movements, weight gain, and productivity across a range of predation risk intensities.” (304)

“Managers may be able to minimize the spatial overlap of wolves and cattle by implementing a system to move cattle away from wolf core areas during periods of intensive activity. Further, ranchers might reduce their predation losses by releasing the oldest calves on allotments near wolves, although this suggestion requires additional study. Indeed, age may be the most important factor influencing predation in areas of overlap between wolves and cattle.” (304)

“Carcass detection rates were low in our study, suggesting that current compensation procedures in the western United States may require adjustment to fully cover losses incurred from wolf depredation...” (304)

“... our detection rate data suggest that this method of compensation would result in payment of one-eighth the actual losses to wolves.” (304)