p. 786

The spectrum of control measures used included intensive monitoring of the wolves and livestock (including providing a telemetry receiver to the affected rancher), aversive conditioning (i.e., capturing, radiocollaring and releasing wolves on site or harassing wolves with noisemakers such as cracker shells), relocating or killing wolves, or some combination of these approaches. Control measures continued until livestock depredations ceased, even if this necessitated the eventual removal of all wolves…. When >=6 breeding pairs were present, wolves could be killed after their first offense…. In the experimental areas, wolves attacking livestock on private land could be shot by the landowners, and, on public land after the establishment of 6 breeding pairs in an area, wolves attacking livestock could be shot by holders of a USFWS permit.

p. 787

the unusually severe winter of 1996-1997 dramatically reduced deer throughout northwest Montana (C. Sime, Mont. Dep. Fish, Wildl. And Parks, pers. Commun.), which we believe was responsible for the record-high level of livestock depredations and correspondingly high level of wolf control in northwest Montana during summer 1997.

Wolves that disperse southward in central Idaho and the GYA will increasingly encounter sheep, which are more suceptible to predation than cattle (Fritts et al. 1992, Bangs et al. 1995).

p. 789

Annual survival rate of non-neonatal wolves in northwestern Montana and adjacent Canada from 1984-1995 was 0.80 (Pletscher et al. 1997); 0.84 for resident wolves and 0.66 for dispersers. They found 84% of non-neonatal mortality to be human-caused.

p. 793

Between 1987 and 1998, confirmed losses in northwestern Monatna averaged 5 cattle, 4 sheep, and <1 dog annually (Table 3)…. To put these losses in perspective, livestock producers in Montana reported losing annually an average of 142,000 sheep and 86,000 cattle to all causes between 1986 and 1991 (Bangs et al. 1995, Mont. Agric. Statistics 1992). Those annual losses were estimated at $45,000,000 for which there is no government compensation program in Montana.

Over half the wolf packs in central Idaho have livestock in their territories; yet, few livestock have been killed (4 cattle, 16 sheep, and 1 dog annually).

During 1995-1998, wolves in the GYA killed 8 cattle, 84 sheep, and 4 dogs (3 in 1 incident)…. One wolf was responsible for killing 56 sheep on a USDA forest service grazing allotment.

Producers in the GYA reportedly lost an average of 8,430 cattle and 12,993 sheep annually prior to wolf reintroduction and similar levels of losses (12,314 cattle and 9,366 sheep) occurred prior to wolf reintroduction in central Idaho (USFWS 1994b); however, even a few suspected, but unconfirmed, wolf-caused losses becomes an emotionally and politically sensitive issue.

p. 794

The total annual negative economic costs of a recovered wolf population in the experimental areas were estimated at $1,728,000- $3,930,000 (USFWS 1994b)…. These annual costs were composed of $944,000-$1,600,000 in fewer hunter benefits, $779,000-$1,271,000 in reduced hunter expenditures, and $4,811-$48,973 in livestock losses. In addition, there will be wolf management costs to the respective state resource agencies after wolves are de-listed.

In perspective, the EIS estimated that the presence of a recovered wolf population in GYA alone could generate economic activity, primarily tourism related, in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming valued at up to $23,000,000 annually (USFWS 1994b).