"Many ideas, myths, and misperceptions about coyote depredation management exist; primarily questions regarding: what management techniques are available and effective; the effect of removal on coyote populations; and why is coyote predation on sheep a recurring problem with management programs currently in place?"(398)

"Our attempt is to provide a science-based perspective on the merits and pitfalls of coyote depredation management."(399)

"Available food, especially in winter (Weaver 1979, Gese et al. 1996a), is the major factor regulating coyote abundance (Gier 1968, Clark 1972), mediated through social dominance and territoriality."(400)

"Unexploited coyote populations typically have older age structures (Fig. 4), high adult survival rates, low reproductive rates (especially among yearlings), and low recruitment into the adult population."(401)

"Although litter sizes may increase in response to reduced coyote density (compensatory reproduction), this is likely a response to reduced competition for food (Andelt 1987, 1996) or breeding among younger females."(401)

"The number of sheep in the U.S. has declined over 75% in the past 50 years (Wagner 1988). By 1991, the number of sheep in the U.S. was estimated at 11.7 million, with numbers declining to 8.46 million by 1996 (USDA 1997)…. 6% of the producers had more than 1,000 ewes each, and accounted for over 55% of the sheep."(402)

"In biologically monitored situations where there were organized depredation control efforts, losses of sheep to coyotes typically range between 1.0-6.0% of lambs and 0.1-2.0% for ewes (USFW 1978). In situations where producers were reimbursed for their losses in lieu of predator control efforts, losses to coyotes were typically higher, ranging from 12-29% of lambs and 1-8% of ewes."(402)

"Confinement, use of predator fences, and shed lambing are practices that can reduce losses…. Shed lambing is practiced by some large operators with increased lamb survival offset by higher investments in facilities and labor and is used primarily where supplemental feeds are available. Frequently this practice defers predation for 2-3 weeks until the animals return to open pastures and ranges."(403)

"Lambs with impaired mobility, lambs of ewes with impaired mobility, lambs without ewes, lambs displaying aberrant behavior, and lambs that were more active than others were more likely to be killed. Lambs newly introduced to a flock were more likely to be killed than lambs well integrated into the social structure of flocks;"(403)

"There is speculation (e.g., Wilkinson 1996)that coyote populations not subject to human-induced mortality might pose less risk to livestock than populations manipulated to reduce coyote abundance. The underlying rationale suggests that undisturbed coyote populations have fewer and smaller litters, resulting in reduced motivations to feed pups, and translate into reduced depredations on livestock."(404)

"Some of the more frequently mentioned practices (for reducing livestock depredation by coyotes) include: (1) confining or concentrating flocks during periods of vulnerability (e.g. at night or during lambing), (2) using herders, (3) shed lambing, (4) removing livestock carrion from pastures to retard food recognition by coyotes, (5) synchronizing birthing to reduce the period of maximum vulnerability, and (6) keeping young animals in areas with little cover and in close proximity to human activity."(404)

"Electronic devices that periodically emit bursts of light or sound have been shown to deter coyote predation on sheep in both fenced pastures, and open range situations."(405)

"To date, there have been no systematic field studies of the behavior of coyotes toward guard animals. Radioed coyotes have been found in close proximity to sheep bedding grounds and the attending guard dog (Conner 1995). One hypothesis is that although guard animals may not deter coyotes from grazing areas, they may change the coyotes’ agenda when in those areas."(405)

"Where livestock can be effectively manipulated, Livestock Protection Collars can selectively remove specific coyotes responsible for depredations."(406)

"Llamas appear effective, particularly when placed singly with stock (i.e., 2 llamas may ignore the sheep) and in open habitat allowing them good visibility and less concealment for coyotes."(408)

"Although they may be initially effective, frightening devices become ineffective as coyotes habituate to them."(408)